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| '''''Magic''''' or '''''sorcery''''' are terms referring to the alleged influencing of events and physical phenomena by [[supernatural]], [[mystical]], or [[paranormal]] means. They can refer to cultural complexes of beliefs and practices that believers can resort to in order to wield this supernatural influence; and also, to similar cultural complexes that seek to explain various events and phenomena by supernatural means.
| | #REDIRECT[[Magic]] |
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| The term ''magic'' in its various translations has been used in a number of ways:
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| *In the context of [[parapsychology]], magic is often defined as the study and application of [[psychic]] forces or energy.
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| *From the point of view of many established religions, for example [[Christianity]], magic is often used as a pejorative term for [[Paganism|Pagan]] rituals, with the implication that they involve sinful, [[blasphemy|blasphemous]] or [[idolatry|idolatrous]] practices. The ''[[magic and religion]]'' article deals largely with this aspect.
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| *Among occultists, '''magic''' is a fairly neutral term which has some varied connotations, such as white magic and ''[[black magic]]''. The famous occultist [[Aleister Crowley]] coined the spelling '''''[[magick]]''''' to distinguish "the true science of the [[Magi]]" from all its "counterfeits," such as [[magic (illusion)|stage magic]]. Today many use that spelling in the same or otherwise similar way, often to connote a [[Neopaganism|Pagan]], [[Wicca]]n, or [[Hermeticism|Hermetic]] system of beliefs and [[ritual]] practises.
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| ==Etymology==
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| The word ''magic'' ultimately derives from [[Magus]] ([[Old Persian]] ''maguš''), one of the [[Zoroastrian]] astrologer priests of the [[Medes]]. In the Hellenistic period, [[Greek language|Greek]] μάγος (''magos'') could be used as an adjective, but an adjective μαγικός (''magikos'', latin ''magicus'') is also attested from the [[1st century]] ([[Plutarchus]]), typically appearing in the feminine, in μαγική τέχνη (''magike techne'', latin ''ars magica'') "magical art." The word entered the English language in the late [[14th century]] from [[Old French]] ''magique''.
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| Likewise, ''sorcery'' was taken in ca. [[1300]] from Old French ''sorcerie'', which is from [[Vulgar Latin]] ''*sortiarius'', from ''sors'' "fate", apparently meaning "one who influences fate." ''Sorceress'' appears also in the late [[14th century]], while ''sorcerer'' is attested only from [[1526]].
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| ==Magic and religion==
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| {{main|Magic and religion}}
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| The conceptual relationship between religion and magic is similar to the relationship between "religion" and [[Paganism]], whereas "religion" refers to a system of ''established'' beliefs, and "magic" and "Pagan" are labels used by people within that system to describe beliefs and practices that conflict with or are outside of that system.
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| From the point of view of adherents of Christianity, the terms "magic" and "wizardry" connote [[belief]]s which are held to be false beliefs or heresy. In this sense, the term 'magic' is typically outdated, although in the direct quotation of [[religious scripture]] it may have some limited usage in modern times.
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| Originally referring to the older [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] ''[[Magus|Magi]]'' (i.e. [[Wise Old Man|sage]]s, [[priest]]s), the term "magic" became a negative term, and among the followers of the [[Judaic|Judaism]] religion was recorded into Western history with its denigrating meaning. In times of antiquity, practitioners of other religions were accused of practicing magic, (the adherents of [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] were never accused of this on any large scale, though they were (and still are due to technicalities of Jewish Law) accused of idol worship.)
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| In the Middle Ages, what we now call "[[science|the sciences]]" began to develop, partially through [[alchemy]]. Alchemy attempted to codify specific methodology for the mechanical achievement of tasks which most considered to be important, such as the [[healing]] of illnesses and the making of wealth ([[gold]] etc). Whereas religion advocated a faith-based deference to matters of spirit, alchemy played a significant role in developing human curiosity about the natural world into a systemic structure of beliefs and practices. It is from alchemy that our modern concept of wizardry and magic come from; as a kind of melding of spirituality and methodical and professional investigation into the mysterious or "[[arcane]]."
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| == History ==
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| === Magical beliefs in Western Europe ===
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| Belief in various magical practices has waxed and waned in [[Europe]]an and Western [[history]], under pressure from either organised monotheistic religions or from [[scepticism]] about the reality of magic, and the ascendancy of [[scientism]].
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| In the world of [[classical antiquity]], much as in the present time, magic was thought to be somewhat exotic. [[Egypt]], home of [[hermeticism]], and [[Mesopotamia]] and [[Persian Empire|Persia]], original home of the [[Magus|Magi]], were lands where expertise in magic was thought to be prevalent. In Egypt, a large number of magical [[papyrus|papyri]], in [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Coptic language|Coptic]], and [[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]], have been recovered. These sources contain early instances of much of the magical lore that later became part of Western cultural expectations about the practice of magic, especially [[ceremonial magic]]. They contain early instances of:
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| *the use of "magic words" said to have the power to command [[spirit]]s;
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| *the use of [[wand]]s and other ritual tools;
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| *the use of a magic circle to defend the magician against the spirits he is [[invocation|invoking]] or [[evocation|evoking]]; and
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| *the use of mysterious [[symbol]]s or [[sigil (magic)|sigil]]s thought useful to invoke or evoke spirits.
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| The use of [[Medium (spirituality)|spirit mediums]] is also documented in these texts; many of the spells call for a child to be brought to the magic circle to act as a conduit for messages from the spirits. The time of the Emperor [[Julian of Rome]], marked by a reaction against the influence of Christianity, saw a revival of magical practices associated with [[neo-Platonism]] under the guise of [[theurgy]].
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| === In the Middle Ages ===
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| Mediæval authors, under the control of the Church, confined their magic to compilations of wonderlore and collections of spells. [[Albertus Magnus]] was credited, rightly or wrongly, with a number of such compilations. Specifically Christianised varieties of magic were devised at this period. During the early Middle Ages, the cult of [[relic]]s as objects not only of [[veneration]] but also of supernatural power arose. Miraculous tales were told of the power of relics of the [[saint]]s to work [[miracle]]s, not only to heal the sick, but for purposes like swaying the outcome of a [[battle]]. The relics had become [[amulet]]s, and various [[church]]es strove to purchase scarce or valuable examples, hoping to become places of [[pilgrimage]]. As in any other economic endeavour, demand gave rise to supply. Tales of the miracle-working relics of the saints were compiled later into quite popular collections like the ''[[Golden Legend]]'' of [[Jacobus de Voragine]] or the ''Dialogus miraculorum'' of [[Caesar of Heisterbach]].
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| There were other, officially proscribed varieties of Christianized magic. The [[demonology]] and [[angel]]ology contained in the earliest [[grimoire]]s assume a life surrounded by Christian implements and sacred rituals. The underlying [[theology]] in these works of Christian demonology encourages the magician to fortify himself with [[fasting]], [[prayer]]s, and [[sacrament]]s, so that by using garbled versions of the holy names of [[God]] in foreign languages, he can use divine power to coerce [[demon]]s into appearing and serving his usually lustful or avaricious magical goals. Not surprisingly, the church disapproved of these rites; nevertheless, they are Christianised, and assume a theology of mechanical sacramentalism.
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| In the [[XIII century]], [[astrology]] had some great names: in [[England]] [[Johannes de Sacrobosco]], in [[Europe]] the [[Italy|italian]] [[Guido Bonatti]] from [[Forlì]].
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| === Magic in the Renaissance ===
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| [[Renaissance]] [[humanism]] saw a resurgence in [[hermeticism]] and other Neo-Platonic varieties of ceremonial magic. The Renaissance and the [[Industrial Revolution]], on the other hand, saw the rise of [[scientism]], in such forms as the substitution of chemistry for alchemy, the dethronement of the [[Ptolemaic theory]] of the universe assumed by astrology, the development of the [[germ theory]] of disease, that restricted the scope of applied magic and threatened the belief systems it relied on. Tensions roused by the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] [[Reformation]] led to an upswing in [[witch-hunt|witch-hunting]], especially in [[Germany]], [[England]], and [[Scotland]]; but ultimately, the new [[theology]] of Protestantism proved a worse foe to magic by undermining belief in the sort of [[ritual]]ism that allowed religious rites to be re-purposed towards earthly, magical ends. Scientism, more than religion, proved to be magic's deadliest foe.
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| Alongside the ceremonial magic followed by the better educated were the everyday activities of folk practitioners of magic across Europe, typified by the [[cunning folk]] found in Great Britain. In their magical practices astrology, [[folklore]], and distorted versions of Christian ritual magic worked alongside each other to answer customer demand.
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| === Magic and Romanticism ===
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| Baron [[Carl Reichenbach]]'s experiments with his [[Odic force]] appeared to be an attempt to bridge the gap between magic and science. More recent periods of renewed interest in magic occurred around the end of the [[nineteenth century]], where [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]] and other offshoots of [[Romanticism]] cultivated a renewed interest in exotic spiritualities. European [[colonialism]], which put Westerners in contact with [[India]] and [[Egypt]], re-introduced exotic beliefs to Europeans at this time. [[Hinduism|Hindu]] and [[Egyptian mythology]] frequently feature in nineteenth century magical texts. The late [[19th century]] spawned a large number of [[magical organization]]s, including the [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]], the [[Theosophical Society]], and specifically magical variants on [[Freemasonry]]. The Golden Dawn represented perhaps the peak of this wave of magic, attracting cultural celebrities like [[William Butler Yeats]], [[Algernon Blackwood]], and [[Arthur Machen]] to its banner.
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| === Magic in the twentieth century ===
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| A further revival of interest in magic was heralded by the repeal, in [[England]], of the last [[Witchcraft Act]] in [[1951]]. This was the cue for [[Gerald Gardner]], now recognised as the ''founder'' of [[Wicca]], to publish his first non-fiction book ''Witchcraft Today'', in which he claimed to reveal the existence of a [[witch]]-cult that dated back to pre-Christian Europe. Gardner's religion combined magic and [[religion]] in a way that was later to cause people to question [[The Age of Enlightenment|the Enlightenment]]'s boundaries between the two subjects.
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| Gardner's newly publicized religion, and many others, took off in the atmosphere of the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]], when the [[counterculture]] of the [[hippie]]s also spawned another period of renewed interest in magic, divination, and other occult practices. The various branches of [[Neopaganism]] and other [[Earth religion]]s that have been publicized since Gardner's publication tend to follow a pattern in combining the practice of magic and religion. Following the trend of magic associated with counterculture, some [[feminism|feminists]] launched an independent revival of [[goddess worship]]. This brought them into contact with the [[Gardnerian Wicca|Gardnerian]] tradition of magical religion, and deeply influenced that tradition in return.
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| == Beliefs==
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| Many people in the West claim to believe in or practise various forms of magic. The [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn]], [[Aleister Crowley]], and their followers are most often credited with the resurgence of magical tradition in the [[English language|English]] speaking world of the [[20th century]], but in their eagerness to reconstruct the lost traditions of the past, they often included elements of questionable authenticity, or items altogether manufactured. Other, similar movements took place at roughly the same time, centred in [[France]] and [[Germany]]. Thus, any current tradition which acknowledges the natural elements, the seasons, and the practitioner's relationship with the Earth, [[Gaia (mythology)|Gaia]], or the [[Goddess]] may be correctly regarded as [[Neopaganism|Neopagan]], and few such traditions can be sensibly labelled more authentic than any others.
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| [[Aleister Crowley]] preferred the spelling [[Magick|''magick'']], defining it as "the science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with the will." By this, he included "mundane" acts of will as well as [[ritual magic]]. In ''Magick in Theory and Practice'', Chapter XIV, Crowley says:
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| :''What is a Magical Operation? It may be defined as any event in nature which is brought to pass by Will. We must not exclude potato-growing or banking from our definition. Let us take a very simple example of a Magical Act: that of a man blowing his nose.''
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| Although some current practitioners of magic prefer the term ''[[Paganism|Pagan]]'', ''[[Neopaganism]]'' is more precise for scholarly reference to current rituals and traditions (though both are technically correct, as Neopaganism is but a particular ''subset'' of Paganism). [[Wicca]] is a more codified form of modern magic than Neopaganism, again owing much to Crowley and his ilk.
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| Wiccans and other followers of modern religious Witchcraft use magic extensively. However, they do not all subscribe to Aleister Crowley's definition of what that is, nor use it for the same purposes. Ruickbie (2004:193-209) shows that Wiccans and Witches define magic in many different ways and use it for a number of different purposes. Despite that diversity of opinion, he concludes that the general result upon the practitioner is a positive one.
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| == Theories of magic ==
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| A survey of writings by believers in magic shows that adherents believe that it may work by one or more of these basic principles:
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| * '''Natural forces that cannot be detected by science''' at present, and in fact may not be detectable at all. These magical forces are said to exist in addition to and alongside the four [[fundamental forces]] of nature: [[gravity]], [[electromagnetism]], the [[strong nuclear force]] and the [[weak nuclear force]].
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| * '''Intervention of spirits''' similar to these hypothetical natural forces, but with their own consciousness and intelligence. Believers in [[spiritual being|spirit]]s will often see a whole [[cosmos]] of beings of many different kinds, sometimes organized into a [[hierarchy]].
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| * A '''mystical power''', such as [[mana]] or [[numen]], that exists in all things. This power is often said to be dangerous to people. Sometimes this power is contained in a [[magical object]], such as a stone or a charm, which the magician can manipulate.
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| * A mysterious '''interconnection in the cosmos''' that connects and binds all things, above and beyond the natural forces.
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| * '''Manipulation of symbols'''. Adherents of [[magical thinking]] believe that symbols can be used for more than representation: they can magically take on a physical quality of the phenomenon or object that they represent. By manipulating symbols (as well as [[sigils]]), one is said to be able to manipulate the reality that this symbol represents.
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| * The principles of '''sympathetic magic''' of Sir [[James George Frazer]], explicated in his ''[[The Golden Bough]]'' (third edition, 1911-1915). These principles include the "law of similarity" and the "law of contact" or "contagion." These are systematized versions of the manipulation of symbols. Frazer defined them this way:
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| ::''If we analyse the principles of thought on which magic is based, they will probably be found to resolve themselves into two: first, that like produces like, or that an effect resembles its cause; and, second, that things which have once been in contact with each other continue to act on each other at a distance after the physical contact has been severed. The former principle may be called the Law of Similarity, the latter the Law of Contact or Contagion. From the first of these principles, namely the Law of Similarity, the magician infers that he can produce any effect he desires merely by imitating it: from the second he infers that whatever he does to a material object will affect equally the person with whom the object was once in contact, whether it formed part of his body or not.'' [http://www.bartleby.com/196/5.html]
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| * '''Concentration or meditation'''. A certain amount of restricting the mind to some imagined object (or will), according to Aleister Crowley, produces mystical attainment or "an occurrence in the brain characterized essentially by the uniting of subject and object." (Book Four, Part 1: Mysticism) Magic, as defined previously, seeks to aid concentration by constantly recalling the attention to the chosen object (or Will), thereby producing said attainment. For example, if one wishes to concentrate on a God, one might memorize a system of correspondences (perhaps chosen arbitrarily, as this would not affect its usefulness for mystical purposes) and then make every object that one sees "correspond" to said God.
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| :[[Aleister Crowley]] wrote that ''". . . the exaltation of the mind by means of magickal practices leads (as one may say, in spite of itself) to the same results as occur in straightforward [[Yoga]]."'' Crowley's [[magick]] thus becomes a form of mental, mystical, or spiritual discipline, designed to train the mind to achieve greater concentration. Crowley also made claims for the paranormal effects of magick, suggesting a connection with the first principle in this list. However, he defined any attempt to use this power for a purpose other than aiding mental or mystical attainment as "black magick".
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| * '''The magical power of the subconscious mind'''. To believers who think they need to convince their [[subconscious mind]] to make the changes they want, all spirits and energies are projections and [[symbol]]s that make sense to the subconscious. A variant of this belief is that the subconscious is capable of contacting spirits, who in turn can work magic.
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| Many more theories exist. Practitioners will often mix these concepts, and sometimes even invent some themselves. In the contemporary current of [[chaos magic]] in particular, it is not unusual to believe any concept of magic works.
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| == Religious ritual and magical thinking ==
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| Viewed from a non-theistic perspective, many religious [[ritual]]s and beliefs seem similar to, or identical to, [[magical thinking]].
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| Related to both magic and [[prayer]] is religious [[supplication]]. This involves a [[prayer]], or even a [[sacrifice]] to a supernatural being or god. This god or being is then asked to intervene on behalf of the person offering the prayer.
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| The difference, in theory, is that prayer requires the assent of a deity with an independent will, who can deny the request. Magic, by contrast is thought to be effective:
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| *by virtue of the operation itself;
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| *or by the strength of the magician's will;
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| *or because the magician believes he can command the spiritual beings addressed by his spells.
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| In practice, when prayer doesn't work, it means that the god has chosen not to hear nor grant it; when magic fails, it is because of some defect in the casting of the spell itself. It is no wonder that magic tends to be more formulaic and less ''extempore'' than prayer. Ritual is the magician's failsafe, the key to any hope for success, and the explanation for failure.
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| A possible exception is the practice of [[word of faith]], where it is often held that it is the exercise of faith ''in itself'' that brings about a desired result.
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| == Varieties of magical practice ==
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| ''See also [[fields of magickal study]]''
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| The best-known type of magical practice is the '''[[Spell (paranormal)|spell]]''', a [[ritual]]istic formula intended to bring about a specific effect. Spells are often spoken or written or physically constructed using a particular set of ingredients. The failure of a spell to work may be attributed to many causes, such as failure to follow the exact formula, general circumstances being unconducive, lack of magical ability or downright fraud.
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| Another well-known magical practice is '''[[divination]]''', which seeks to reveal information about the past, present or future. Varieties of divination include:
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| *[[Astrology]]
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| *[[Augur]]y
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| *[[Cartomancy]]
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| *[[Dowsing]]
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| *[[Fortune telling]]
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| *[[Geomancy]]
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| *Consulting the [[I Ching]]
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| *Interpreting [[omen]]s
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| *Reading [[tarot]] cards
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| *[[Scrying]]
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| '''[[Necromancy]]''' is another practice involving the alleged summoning of and conversation with spirits of the dead (''necros''). This is sometimes done simply to commune with deceased loved ones; it can also be done to gain information from the spirits, as a type of divination; or to command the aid of those spirits in accomplishing some goal, as part of casting a spell.
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| Varieties of magic can also be categorised by the techniques involved in their operation. One common means of categorisation distinguishes between '''contagious''' magic and '''sympathetic''' magic, one or both of which may be employed in any magical work. Contagious magic involves the use of physical ingredients which were once in contact with the person or thing the practitioner intends to influence. Sympathetic magic involves the use of images or physical objects which in some way resemble the person or thing one hopes to influence; [[voodoo doll]]s are an example.
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| Other common categories given to magic include High and Low Magic (the appeal to divine powers or spirits respectively, with goals lofty or personal as accords the type of magic). Manifest and Subtle magic typically refers to magic of legend rather than what many individuals who practise the [[Occult]] claim to use as magic, where Manifest magic is magic that immediately appears with a result, and Subtle magic being magic that gradually and intangibly alters the world.
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| Academic historian [[Richard Kieckhefer]] divides the category of spells into [[psychology|psychological]] magic, which seeks to influence other people's minds to do the magician's will, such as with a love spell, and [[illusion]]ary magic, which seeks to conjure the manifestation of various wonders. A spell that conjured up a banquet, or that conferred [[invisibility]] on the magician, would be examples of illusionary magic. Magic that causes objective physical change, in the manner of a [[miracle]], is not accommodated for in Kieckhefer's categories.
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| === Magical traditions ===
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| Another method of classifying magic is by "[[tradition]]s," which in this context typically refer to complexes of magical belief and practice associated with various cultural groups and lineages of transmission. Some of these traditions are highly specific and culturally circumscribed. Others are more [[eclectic]] and [[syncretism|syncretistic]]. These traditions can compass both divination and spells.
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| When dealing with magic in terms of "traditions," it is a common misconception for ousiders to treat any religion in which clergy members make amulets and talismans for their congregantsas a "tradition of magic," even though what is being named is actually an organized religion with clergy, laity, and an order of liturgical service. This is most notably the case when Voodoo, Palo, Santeria, Taoism, Wicca, and other contemporary religions and [[Folk religion|folk religions]] are mischaracterized as forms of "magic" or even "sorcery."
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| Examples of magical, folk-magical, and religio-magical traditions include:
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| *[[Alchemy]]
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| *[[Animism]]
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| *[[Bonpo]]
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| *[[Ceremonial magic|Ceremonial Magic]]
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| *[[Chaos magic|Chaos Magic]]
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| *[[Hermeticism]]
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| *[[Sorcery#In_Hinduism|Mantrik Hinduism]]
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| *[[Hoodoo| Hoodoo, Conjure, Rootwork]]
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| *[[Huna]]
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| *[[Witchcraft#Witchcraft_in_the_Tanakh_.28Hebrew_Bible.2C_Old_Testament.29|Jewish Witchcraft]]
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| *[[Kabbalah#Practical_applications|Kabbalistic magic, Practical Kabbalah]]
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| *[[Nagualism]]
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| *[[New Age]]
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| *[[Obeah]]
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| *[[Palo Monte]]
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| *[[pow-wow (folk magic)|Pow-Wow, Brauche]]
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| *[[Psychonaut]]ics
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| *[[Reiki]]
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| *[[Santería]]
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| *[[Satanism]]
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| *[[Seid]]
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| *[[Shamanism]]
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| *[[Shinto]]
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| *[[Thelema]]
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| *[[Taoism]]
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| *[[Vodun]]
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| *[[Voodoo]]
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| *[[Wicca]]
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| == Religious attitudes towards magic ==
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| === Indigenous traditions ===
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| Appearing from aboriginal tribes in [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] to [[rainforest]] tribes in [[South America]], bush tribes in [[Africa]] and ancient [[Paganism|Pagan]] tribal groups in [[Europe]] and the [[British Isles]], some form of shamanic contact with the spirit world seems to be nearly universal in the early development of human communities. The ancient cave paintings in [[France]] are widely speculated to be early magical formulations, intended to produce successful hunts. Much of the [[Babylon]]ian and [[Egypt]]ian pictorial writing characters appear derived from the same sources.
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| Although indigenous magical traditions persist to this day, very early on some communities transitioned from nomadic to agricultural civilizations, and with this shift, the development of spiritual life mirrored that of civic life. Just as tribal elders were consolidated and transformed into kings and bureaucrats, so too were shamans and adepts devolved into priests and a priestly caste.
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| This shift is by no means in nomenclature alone. While the [[shaman]]'s task was to negotiate between the tribe and the spirit world, on behalf of the tribe, as directed by the collective will of the tribe, the [[priest]]'s role was to transfer instructions from the deities to the city-state, on behalf of the deities, as directed by the will of those deities. This shift represents the first major usurpation of power by distancing magic from those participating in that magic. It is at this stage of development that highly codified and elaborate rituals, setting the stage for formal religions, began to emerge, such as the funeral rites of the Egyptians and the sacrifice rituals of the Babylonians, [[Persians]], [[Aztecs]] and [[Mayans]].
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| === Magic and the Magi ===
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| Magical beliefs and practices are common in many [[culture]]s and [[anthropology of religion|religion]]s. The word ''magic'' comes from the beliefs and practices of the [[Magi]] (singular, ''[[Magus]]''), [[Persians|Persian]] [[priest]]s and scholars, followers of [[Zoroaster]], who were credited by the classical world with mastery of [[astrology]] and other arcane arts.
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| === In Judaism and Christianity ===
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| {{see|Kabbalah}}
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| Officially, [[Judaism]], [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] characterize magic as forbidden [[witchcraft]], and have often prosecuted practitioners of it with varying degrees of severity. The traditional theologies of these religions have held that the apparent effects of magic are either delusional or the result of fallen angels manipulating nature on behalf of the sorcerer, hence witchcraft has often been seen as a type of pact with demonic beings.
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| Unofficially, Jewish and Christian mystics have practiced varying forms of magic for hundreds of years. Jewish folk stories often feature wonder-working rabbis and sages as protagonists, whose powers more or less resemble magic.
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| === In Islam ===
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| [[Muslims]], followers of the religion of [[Islam]], believe in magic, and forbid practice of it (Siher). Siher translates as sorcery or black magic. Muslims believe that two Angels taught sorcery to mankind in order to test their obedience to refrain from it.
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| :''And they follow that which the devils falsely related against the kingdom of Solomon. [[Solomon]] disbelieved not; but the [[devil]]s disbelieved, teaching mankind sorcery and that which was revealed to the two angels in [[Babel]], Harut and Marut. Nor did they (the two [[angel]]s) teach it to anyone till they had said: We are only a temptation, therefore disbelieve not (in the guidance of [[Allah]]). And from these two (angels) people learn that by which they cause division between man and wife; but they injure thereby no-one save by Allah's leave. And they learn that which harmeth them and profiteth them not. And surely they do know that he who trafficketh therein will have no (happy) portion in the Hereafter; and surely evil is the price for which they sell their souls, if they but knew.'' ([[Qur'an|al-Qur'an]] 2:102)
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| However, whereas performing ''miracles'' in Islam is reserved for a prophet ("Nabi"), some schools of thought within Islam believe in a form of metaphysical training in which the seeker can obtain the power to perform miracle-like events (called "keramat"). This is however not regarded as magic but rather psychic power. During the golden age of Islam, there was an influx of [[Hermetic]] and Chaldean thought due to the translation of many texts into Arabic. Magic based on angels, properties of the 99-Names of Allah, verses from the Quran, and the power of the Arabic letters became accepted as an alternative to sorcery between the ninth and thirteenth centuries. One of the most famous books of this era was the Shamsu al-Ma'aref al-Kubra, by [[Ahmed al-Buni]]. This book was later banned by orthodox Muslims as heresy, but continues to be read and studied. This kind of magic was called, instead of Siher (Sorcery), Ilm al-Hikmah (Knowledge of the Wise), Ilm Shem Yah (Study of the Divine Name), and Rouhaniat (Spirituality). For example, in Islamic tradition, as well as in Judaism, King [[Solomon]], could communicate with the animal kingdom. That is believed to be God given, a miracle and not regarded magic. But then we read of a mysterious person in the circle of people around Solomon by the name of ''Asef ben berkhia'', who is said to have been able to outperform the angels with his knowledge of the Divine Names. Magical power through Divine blessings ("keramat" e.g.) is therefore attainable by man; it is ''iktisabi'', to put it properly.
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| Many Muslims, especially during the middle ages, believed in topics such as [[Magic carpet|flying carpets]] and the esoteric sciences such as [[Alchemy]] and [[Astrology]], where a student under the proper master (pir) could obtain this knowledge. The [[Persian Empire|Persian]] scientist [[Biruni]], for example, is said to have been famed for his knowledge of using [[Astrology]] to foretell the near future with [[astrolabe]]s.
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| === In Hinduism ===
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| It has been long accepted by many that [[Hindu]] [[India]] has been the land of magic, both supernatural and otherwise. Hinduism is one of the few religions that has sacred texts like the [[Vedas]] that discuss both white and black magic. The [[Atharva Veda]] is a veda that deals with [[mantra]]s that can be used for both good and bad. The word [[mantrik]] in India literally means "magician" since the mantrik usually knows mantras, spells, and curses which can be used for or against forms of magic. Many [[ascetics]] after long periods of [[penance]] and [[meditation]] are alleged to attain a state where they attain supernatural powers. However, many choose not to use them and instead transcend beyond physical powers into the realm of spirituality. Many [[siddhar]]s are said to have performed miracles that would have been impossible to perform.
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| == Magic in fiction ==
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| In considering magic as tradition, a related category concerns magic in [[fiction]], where it serves as a [[plot device]], the source of magical [[artifact (fantasy)|artifact]]s and their [[quest]]s. Magic has long been a subject of fictional tales, especially in [[fantasy]] fiction, where it has been a mainstay from the days of [[Homer]] and [[Apuleius]], down through the tales of the [[Holy Grail]], [[Edmund Spenser]]'s ''[[The Faerie Queene]]'', and to more contemporary authors from [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] to [[Mercedes Lackey]] and [[J. K. Rowling]].
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| Such magic may be inspired by real world beliefs and practices, but may also be an invention of the writer's. Furthermore, even when the writer uses real practices, the effect, strength, and rules of the magic will normally be what the writer requires for the plot. There may be a well-developed system in fictional magic, or not, but when the writer does not systemize the magic, there is always the difficulty of ensuring that it is not merely used when convenient for the writer.
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| It is by no means impossible, moreover, for fictional magic to leap from the pages of fantasy to actual magical practice; such was the fate of the ''[[Necronomicon]]'', invented as fiction by [[H. P. Lovecraft]], who described it so well that there have been several attempts by modern authors to produce it as a [[grimoire]].
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| In [[science fiction]] plots (especially the "hard" variety), while magic tends to be avoided, often extraordinary facts are portrayed that do not have a scientific basis and are not explained in that fashion. In these cases the reader might find it useful to remember [[Arthur C. Clarke]]'s "Third Law": ''Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic.''
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| Magic has been [[Magic (gaming)|portrayed in numerous games]], in which magic is a characteristic available to players in certain circumstances.
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| Sorcerors and sorcery are a staple of [[China|Chinese]] [[wu xia]] fiction and are dramatically featured in many [[martial arts movies]].
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| The [[Sorceress of Grayskull]] was a major character in the mid-1980's cartoon series "He-Man and The Masters of the Universe" and its counterpart show, "She-Ra: Princess of Power." The Sorceress was the guardian of [[Castle Grayskull]] and served as an advisor and guide to the characters of the shows. In the 1980's cartoon series, the voice of the Sorceress was provided by [[Linda Gary]]. In the late 1980's film version of [[Masters of the Universe]] the Sorceress is played by acress [[Christina Pickles]].
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| ==References==
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| * [[Grillot de Givry|de Givry, Grillot]], ''Witchcraft, Magic, and Alchemy'' (J. Courtney Locke, trans.) (Frederick, 1954)
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| * [[Ronald Hutton|Hutton, Ronald]], ''The Triumph of the Moon: A History of Modern Pagan Witchcraft'' (Oxford, 2001) ISBN 0192854496
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| * Hutton, Ronald, ''Witches, Druids, and King Arthur'' (Hambledon, 2003) ISBN 1852853972
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| * [[Richard Kiekhefer|Kiekhefer, Richard]], ''Forbidden Rites: A Necromancer's Manual of the Fifteenth Century'' (Pennsylvania State University, 1998) ISBN 0271017511
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| *[[Leo Ruickbie|Ruickbie, Leo]], ''Witchcraft Out of the Shadows'' (Robert Hale, 2004) ISBN 0-7090-7567-7
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| ==See also==
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| * [[Occultism]]
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| * [[Magick]]
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| * [[sex magic]]
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| * [[Sympathetic magic]]
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| * [[List of magical terms and traditions]]
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| * [[List of occultists]]
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| * [[List of occult authors]]
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| * [[Magical thinking]]
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| * [[Magus]]
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| ==External links==
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| * [http://skepdic.com/magicalthinking.html The Skeptic's Dictionary entry for Magical Thinking]
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| * [http://www.drualtys.com Drualtys] online occult magazine.
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| * [http://www.ecauldron.com/spells/index.php The Cauldron's Grimoire] Online Collection of Spells
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| * [http://www.egnu.org/thelema/index.php/Main_Page Free Encyclopedia of Thelema]
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| * [http://www.thelemapedia.org Thelemapedia] The Encyclopedia of Thelema & Magick
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| * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11197b.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' "Occult Art, Occultism"]
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| * [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/15674a.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' "Witchcraft"]
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